IN MEMORIAM IN MEMORIAM by Wim van
Binsbergen (http://shikanda.net;
e-mail: wimvanbinsbergen@gmail.com
)
©
2011 Wim van Binsbergen
With deep regret
we announce the death of a leading anthropologist of Malawi and
of African religion, Matthew Schoffeleers – sometime Deputy
Chairman of the African Studies Centre (1980-1984), and for
decades an important figure in Africanist research and teaching
in Malawi as well as in the Netherlands.
Matthew
Schoffeleers was born as child of a peasant family in the hamlet
of Geverik, near Beek, in the extreme South East of the
Netherlands, then still a wholly and emphatically Roman Catholic
region. For a boy of his background a religious career was the
obvious channel to bring his talents to fruition, so in 1942 he
joined the minor seminary, in 1949 he took his first vows within
the religious congregation of Montfort, and in 1955 he was
ordained priest and went off to Malawi as a missionary. In Malawi
he was stationed in the Lower Shire Valley, where rather than
unreservedly proselytising for the Roman Catholic faith, he
increasingly became involved with the local cult of the martyr /
demigod Mbona, and with the well-known nyau mask society.
A conflict with his bishop ensued, and (like so many members of
his generation, including Johannes Fabian, Sjaak van der Geest
and René Devisch) Matthew Schoffeleers was brought to redefine
his increasingly intimate relationship with Africa, from being a
missionary, to being an anthropologist cum local participant. At
the time, the Jesuits’ Lovanium University at Leopoldville
(now Kinshasa) offered (as a branch of Louvain Catholic
University, Belgium) an anthropology curriculum geared to
missionaries’ mounting needs for critical intercultural
(self-)reflection, and here Schoffeleers studied for a year
(1963); one of his class mates was the, now prominent, Congolese
/ American Africanist and classicist / Romanist Valentin Mudimbe,
while soon also the leading Belgian Africanist René Devisch
would also begin his anthropological career there. Schoffeleers
went on to Oxford University, where with amazing rapidity he took
a BA in 1964, and a PhD in 1968 (main supervisor Rodney Needham),
both on the Lower Shire Valley and the Mbona cult. In the same
year he returned to Malawi, as teacher at the Nguladi Roman
Catholic seminary (1968-1970), subsequently as director of the
Catechetical Training Centre in Likulezi (1970-1971), and finally
as Senior Lecturer at the University College, Zomba, Malawi
(1971-1976). In 1976 he was appointed Reader in the Anthropology
of Religion at the Free University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
– a post to be converted, like all other Dutch readerships,
into a full professorship in 1980. It was then, also, that he
acted, for a few years, on the Board of the African Studies
Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands, as Deputy Chairman. In 1989 he
exchanged his Amsterdam regular chair for a personal chair in
Religious Anthropology at Utrecht University, the Netherlands,
from which he retired in 1998 at the age of seventy. After his
retirement he continued his research and publication activities,
including a history of the Dutch Montfortan missions worldwide,
until Alzheimer’s disease made it impossible for him to do
so, forcing him to give up his apartment in Leiden and to live
with his Montfortan confratres in the South East of the
country again, back to where he was born. His eightieth birthday
(2008) was still celebrated in great style, with a solemn
celebration of the Holy Mass and a festive diner for dozens of
relatives, friends, colleagues and former students. He passed
away on Easter Day, 24 April 2011.
In the work of
Matthew Schoffeleers the following major strands may be
distinguished.
As an
anthropologist, he saw it as his first task to put the
ethnography of the Malawian Manganja (a subdivision of the Chewa)
on the map, and in particular to give an adequate account of
their religious life. Here he rather avoided the reductionist,
outsider perspective en vogue in religious anthropology in
the second half of the 20th century, and instead he
strove to encounter and understand the members his local research
population in their own, irreducible spirituality. In his
attempts to make sense of the religious phenomena he studied and
unreservedly shared in Southern Malawi, his main sources of
inspiration were the communitas-centred religious
anthropology of Victor Turner (the subject of his inaugural
address as a Reader at the Free University) and the anglicised
forms of structuralism as mediated by Needham (the subject of his
surprising inaugural address for his Utrecht chair, 1991: Waarom
God maar één been heeft, ‘Why God has only one
leg’, – a discussion of mutilation and asymmetry as
hallmarks of the sacred, thus situating the Mbona figure in a
global comparative, and especially in a universalising and
timeless, typological perspective.
Like many
anthropologists in the second half of the 20th
century, Schoffeleers was fascinated by the historical
implications of his (necessarily present-day) fieldwork data. He
was greatly inspired by the movement of the Historical Study of
African Religion, initiated by the leading historian Terence
Ranger (then University of California Los Angeles, later
Manchester and Oxford) with a generous subsidy of the Ford
Foundation. Here Schoffeleers was to occupy, in the 1970s-80s, a
leading role, with impressive papers on historical aspects of the
nyau society and of the Southern African cult organisation
around the High God, Mwali – culminating in his editorship
of the collection, still authoritative, on Guardians of the
Land (1979), on Southern African territorial cults. Realising
that the retrieval of (glimpses of) the distant past through the
analysis of oral traditions and of the details of ritual
arrangements could only be taken seriously if based on an
explicit and sophisticated methodological basis, Schoffeleers
joined the small number of scholars (including Roy Willis of
Edinburgh, and Wim van Binsbergen of the Leiden African Studies
Centre) who sought to forge the necessary methodological and
theoretical instruments for this purpose. This endeavour also
characterises Schoffeleers’ own contribution to the
collective work he was to publish with van Binsbergen in 1985 on
the basis of a high-powered international conference the two of
them organised on behalf of the African Studies Centre, 1979: Theoretical
explorations in African religion (1985, African Studies
Centre series with Kegan Paul International). This line of
Schoffeleers’ work reached its culmination in River of
Blood: The genesis of a martyr cult in southern Malawi (1992,
Wisconsin UP). A related field of study is that of legends and
folk tales as a form of historically-relevant oral tradition, and
also in this field of oral literature Schoffeleers has made
several contributions as far as Malawi is concerned.
While the
political impact of the Mbona cult on the Malawi national scene
appear to have remained minimal, the same cannot be said for the nyau
cult; the latter, for instance, was reputedly instrumental in
the perpetuation of the Banda regime (1961-1994). While
Schoffeleers disliked the imposition, upon African religion, of
analytical theoretical models that sought to reduce religion to
the social, economic or political field, he became more and more
interested in the relations between religion and the state. From
this concern stemmed, for instance, his major article (in the
journal Africa, 1991) on political acquiescence as a
conspicuous feature of African Independent Churches; here he
revisited and revised a famous classic analysis by the pioneer
analyst of African Independent Churches, Bengt Sundkler.
Having realised
the Christian roots of much of the development endeavour into
which North-South relations were to be redefined after World War
II and especially after the demise of colonialism, Schoffeleers
and his Free University colleague Philip Quarles van Ufford went
one step further, and set out to study development as religion,
bringing to bear upon that institutional complex the entire
analytical and methodological apparatus of religious
anthropology. This made for an original and inspiring collective
work (Religion and development, 1988) that still makes
relevant reading.
In the beginning
of his career, as a missionary, Matthew Schoffeleers explored,
with painful but productive results, to what extent one could
identity with African forms of religion and still remain within
Roman Catholic orthodoxy and church hierarchy. The struggle to
arrive at an existential perspective in which Christianity and
African religion could exist side by side, could meet each other
and could cross-fertilise each other, has characterised his
personal spiritual life and increasingly formed the underlying
inspiration of his more theologically-inclined explorations later
in life – even though he has remained remarkably silent on
this personal, existential dimension. In this connexion he
explored the relevance of the South Central African indigenous
model of the nganga (diviner-priest-healer) for a better
comparative understanding of the figure of Jesus Christ as
treated in Christian theology. From the same perspective, also
the figure of Mbona appears in a new light, as a mutilated martyr
figure mediating between heaven and earth for the sake of crop
fertility and human healing. Here we can understand why
Schoffeleers did not think it preposterous to combine his active
role as a Roman Catholic priest (and as such entrusted with the
pastoral care of specific Dutch communities, while passionately
discharging that role) with being, for decades, the main driving
force behind the survival of the Mbona cult. While most
anthropological colleagues have had difficulty to follow him in
his Christological explorations, Schoffeleers’ insistence on
taking African religion profoundly serious at the personal,
existential level, and his distrust of all North Atlantic
analytical imposition and deconstruction, made him a trusted
ally, and an inspiring friend and teacher, for a whole generation
of religious anthropologists who during fieldwork had come rather
closer to African religion than their freshman handbooks of
anthropology had stipulated.
If, at this most
premature stage, we must reluctantly come to some provisional
judgment of Matthew Schoffeleers’ work, what stands out and
will remain of lasting value is a splendid and extensive,
profound and unique contribution to Malawian ethnography and to
Malawian studies in general.
Beyond that, I
submit that Schoffeleers’ career may be understood as an
expression of fundamentally irreconcilable contradictions arising
from various processes of profound change taking place, during
his lifetime, in West European society, in the relationship
between Africa and the North Atlantic region, in the world of
scholarship, and in the Roman Catholic church. A lifespan of over
82 years is far too long than that we can expect that most of the
concerns and values governing its beginning, will remain valid
and relevant to the very end. Starting out in a milieu where
Christianity was absolutely taken for granted as the paroxysm of
human spirituality, it has been very much to Matthew
Schoffeleers’ credit that, as a missionary, he could respond
to African religion in the existential, inclusive, largely
unconditional way he did. Here he showed himself a man of high
principles, and a visionary, ahead of his time, who recognised
true spirituality wherever he met it, and who would not
compromise that insight, at whatever costs. As Schoffeleers said
at an historical occasion:
‘It
is my task to make my God visible, wherever, and in whatever form
under which he is permitted to manifest himself’,
implying that he
was also fully prepared to perceive and recognise his God under
whatever cultural trappings, also in Africa. However, meanwhile
in Western Europe the tide of secularisation could not be turned.
As a result, the automatic reverence he was brought up to expect
and to solicit from non-priests in his priestly role, seldom came
his way after his return to the Netherlands in 1976. In many ways
an outsider (as a priest, a Southerner, and one who took African
religion seriously for its own sake), he ventured into the
fortress of Dutch Protestantism that the Free University was at
the time; here he found that, despite his controversial
nomination, there was less and less institutional and national
support for the study of African religion and religious
anthropology, and that the number of his co-workers was
dwindling. He also found that he was more of a teacher and a
writer, than of an administrator. When he had vacated his
Amsterdam chair, this was soon redesigned into a focus for the
study of Protestant church dynamics from a cultural-studies
perspective. Increasingly, also, Schoffeleers sought to resolve
his personal existential dilemmas by theological experiments that
risked to estrange him from his fellow anthropologists. Meanwhile
tables were turned in the relation between Africa and the North
Atlantic region in the production of Africanist knowledge. The
politicising of that relation by vocal and highly educated
African colleagues was clearly regretted by Schoffeleers; and
although he did teach in Africa and did publish with African
scholars, most of his life he appears to have lived the
old-fashioned, typically anthropological – and by now
totally obsolete – illusory division of the world between a
South were fieldwork was being done and communitas with
one’s ‘informants’ was being generated, and a
North were writing was to be done, in splendid Northern isolation
and unaccountability. Schoffeleers’ active career ended
before international scholarship had re-dedicated itself to the
study of religion, including African religion, from such new
perspectives as postmodernism and globalisation; also because of
his reluctance to discuss his personal spirituality, he largely
missed the boat of spirituality studies that was taking aboard
much of what formerly went under the flag of religious
anthropology. Finally, the 1990s saw (much to the dismay of
Schoffeleers) a virtual collapse of the once cutting-edge
intellectual industry of the retrieval of the distant past
through the structural analysis of oral traditions and ritual.
Meanwhile a new comparative mythology has arisen, that traces and
compares local oral traditions including myths and folktales
along much more extensive and much more complex trajectories of
space and time – and in this light (as C. Wrigley already
argued in 1988 in the Journal of African History), to
reduce (!) the history of Mbona to the local and relatively
recent facts of Portuguese expansion in the 16th
century CE, appears, on second thought, somewhat myopic, although
sympathetically Afrocentrist, in a way. After all, a martyr
associated with crop fertility can only remind us of Osiris,
Tammuz, Dionysus and Christ in the Mediterranean region, the
Japanese goddess Uke Mochi ???, several Meso American crop
deities, and, in Africa, Chihamba of the Ndembu as described by
Victor Turner, of all people, etc.
For nearly four
decades, I have been very close to Matthew Schoffeleers, not only
as a friend, colleague, co-convener and co-editor, but also as
formally his student (I was the first person upon whom he was to
confer a PhD, in 1979), and as beneficiary of his pastoral role
– he solemnised my second marriage in 1985, and in
recognition my eldest son was named after him. A sympathetic
personal appraisal is therefore expected from me, rather than the
above assessment with some pretensions of objectivity. Most will
remember Schoffeleers for his kindness; his occasionally slurred
speech betraying the former stammerer; his hypersensitivity; his
meticulous attention to details of social etiquette; his
insistence on celebrating major events in his life with crowds of
friends and colleagues; his attention to significant dates in his
own life and that of his loved ones; his very productive
scholarly life for which he made extremely long hours but which
was yet to be combined with the – more invisible –
tasks as a pastor and gardener in the convent garden; and the
peculiar habit of keeping a full file of correspondence on
everyone around him – a file from which he would lavishly
quote during his unrivalled laudatory allocutions (gems of
oratory, psychological and pedagogic skill) at the conclusion of
each of the long series of PhD defences under his supervision.
His PhDs include such prominent Africanists as Gerry ter Haar,
Simon Simonse, Rijk van Dijk, Annette Drews and Ria Reis. Perhaps
Schoffeleers’ main characteristic traits were his sense of
religious mystery and of the miraculous; his tragic sense of
loneliness and homelessness; and his lifelong struggle against
what he considered – largely without grounds – his main
sin, pride; and in which others who knew him well would merely
detect the lifelong contradiction between the successful drive
for achievement, and his very modest family background. With
great charisma and charm, for many years he constituted the
living core of the ‘Werkgroep Afrikaanse Religie rond
Schoffeleers – WARS’ (Working Group on African Religion
Around Schoffeleers), where many of his PhD students met, and
found lasting inspiration that brought them to internationally
recognised publications. Many of their testimonials can be found
in the Festschrift Getuigen ondanks zichzelf (1998), which
was prepared for his 70th birthday. It may well be as
a passionate teacher that Matthew Schoffeleers will yet have the
most lasting impact.
Matthew
Schoffeleers and Wim van Binsbergen
·
Van
Binsbergen, W.M.J., 1979, ‘Malawian suitor studies: some
comments’, paper presented at the Africa seminar, November
1979, Leiden: African Studies Centre, 11 pp; at: http://shikanda.net/publications/WIM%20ON%20MALAWIAN%20SUITORS.htm
·
Van
Binsbergen, W.M.J., & J.M. Schoffeleers, 1985b,
‘Introduction: Theoretical explorations African
religion’, in Theoretical explorations in African
religion, W.M.J. van Binsbergen & J. M. Schoffeleers,
eds., Kegan Paul International, London, pp. 1-49, at:
http://shikanda.net/publications/ASC-1239806-232.pdf
·
Van
Binsbergen, W.M.J., 1991c, ‘Religion and development:
Contributions to a new discourse’, Antropologische
Verkenningen, 10, 3, 1991, pp.1-17; at: http://shikanda.net/publications/ASC-1239806-248.pdf
(a review article of Schoffeleers & Quarles van Ufford’s
1988 book); the version as published in Antropologische
Verkenningen was greatly shortened for editorial reasons
– the full version is: van Binsbergen, Wim M.J.,
‘Religion and development: Reflexions on the work by Philip
Quarles van Ufford and Matthew Schoffeleers’, at: http://shikanda.net/african_religion/reldev.htm
·
van Binsbergen, W.M.J., 1997, Virtuality as a key concept in the
study of globalisation: Aspects of the symbolic transformation of
contemporary Africa, The Hague: WOTRO [ Netherlands Foundation
for Tropical Research, a division of the Netherlands Research
Foundation NWO ] , Working papers on Globalisation and the
construction of communal identity, 3; also at http://www.shikanda.net/general/virtuality_edit%202003.pdf
·
Van
Binsbergen, W.M.J., 1998b, ‘Sangoma in Nederland: Over
integriteit in interculturele bemiddeling’, in: Elias, M.,
& Reis, R., eds, Getuigen ondanks zichzelf: Voor
Jan-Matthijs Schoffeleers bij zijn zeventigste verjaardag,
Maastricht: Shaker, pp. 1-29; at: http://shikanda.net/publications/ASC-1239806-118.pdf;
greatly revised English version: van Binsbergen, Wim M.J., 2003,
‘Sangoma in the North Atlantic region: On integrity in
intercultural mediation’, in: van Binsbergen, Wim M.J., Intercultural
encounters: African and anthropological lessons towards a
philosophy of interculturality, Berlin/Muenster, LIT, pp.
195-234, also at: http://shikanda.net/intercultural_encounters/chapter_6.pdf
·
van Binsbergen, W.M.J., 2001b, 'Witchcraft in modern Africa as
virtualised boundary conditions of the kinship order', in: Bond,
G.C., & Ciekawy, D.M., eds., Witchcraft dialogues:
Anthropological and philosophical exchanges, Athens (OH):
Ohio University Press, pp. 212-263; also at: http://www.shikanda.net/african_religion/witch.htm
·
and search the Shikanda portal http://shikanda.net
with its internal search facility, with the search term
‘Schoffeleers’
on
the occasion of Matthew Schoffeleers’ 80th
birthday Wim van Binsbergen published, in Dutch, a short book of
poetry entirely devoted to his old friend, colleague and
supervisor: van Binsbergen, Wim, 2008, Braambos: Een gedicht,
Haarlem: Uitgeverij Shikanda, also at: http://shikanda.net/literary/braambos.pdf
©
2011 Wim van Binsbergen
Kees
Brusse’s obituary © 2011 Brusse / Vrij Nederland
Kees Brusse’s obituary for Matthew
Schoffeleers, ‘In de ban van de heidenen’, Vrij
Nederland, 4 June 2011-06-10, at: http://shikanda.net/topicalities/brusse_on_schoffeleers.pdf
A
provisional bibliography by Jos Damen © Jos Damen / African
Studies Centre Leiden
Soon after
Schoffeleers’ death, Jos Damen, the Librarian of the African
Studies, Leiden, the Netherlands, compiled the following
provisional bibliography (all or nearly all items available in
that electronically searchable library, see: http://www.ascleiden.nl/Library/Catalogue/
·
Malawi : a special issue in honour of Matthew Schoffeleers /
Brill / 1999
·
In search of truth and justice : confrontations between Church
and State in Malawi 1960-1994 / Schoffeleers, Matthew / CLAIM /
1999
·
Religion and the dramatisation of life : spirit beliefs and
rituals in Southern and Central Malawi / Schoffeleers, Matthew /
Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft / 1997
·
Montfortians in Malawi : their spirituality and pastoral approach
/ with Re?naerts, Hubert / Christian Literature Association in
Malawi (CLAIM) / 1997
·
River of blood : the genesis of a martyr cult in southern Malawi,
c. A.D. 1600 / Schoffeleers, J. Matthew / University of Wisconsin
Press / cop. 1992
·
Religion & development : towards an integrated approach /
with Quarles van Ufford, Philip / Free University Press / 1988
·
Land of fire : oral literature from Malawi / Schoffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / Popular publications etc. / 1985
·
Pentacostalism and neo-traditionalism : the religious
polarization of a rural district in Southern Malawi /
Schoffeleers, Matthew / Free University Press / 1985
·
Theoretical explorations in African religion / with Binsbergen,
Wim van / KPI, Kegan Paul International / cop. 1985
·
Christ as the medicine-man and the medicine-man as Christ : a
tentative history of African christological thought Schoffeleers,
Matthew / Institute of Social Research and Applied Anthropology /
1982
·
The rainmaker : a play / Chimombo, Steven / Popular publ. etc. /
[1979] (introd. J.-M.S.)
·
Bookreviews, articles in popular press and a conference report
(1972-1979) / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Vrije Universiteit,
Vakgroep Niet-Westerse Religies / 1979
·
Trade, warfare and social inequality : the case of the Lower
Shire Valley of Malawi, 1590-1622 A.D. / Schoffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / Repr / s.n. / 1979
·
Oral history and the retrieval of the distant past : on the use
of legendary chronicles as sources of historical information /
Schoffeleers, M. / Afrika-Studiecentrum / 1979
·
Guardians of the land : essays on Central African territorial
cults / Schoffeleers, J.M. / Mambo Press / 1979
·
Particularism vs. universalism : an unresolved problem in
Durkheim's theory of religion : paper delivered at the Durkheim
session of the IXth World Congress of sociology, Uppsala, Sweden,
August 10-1-1978 / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / s.n. / 1978
·
A martyr cult as a relfection on changes in production : the case
of the Lower Shire Valley, 1590-1622 A.D. / Schoffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / Repr / Afrika Studie Centrum / 1978
·
Sourcebook on the Mbona cult in Malawi, South-Eastern Africa /
Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Vrije Universiteit / 1978
·
Rock art and Nyau symbolism in Malawi / Lindgren, N.E. /
Government Press / [ca.1978]
·
Religion, nationalism and economic action : critical questions on
Durkheim and Weber / Schoffeleers, Matthew / Van Gorcum / 1978
·
An outline history of territorial mediumship in a Malawian
district : paper read at the International Conference on Southern
African History, Lesotho, 1977 / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs /
National University Lesotho / 1977
·
Cult idioms and the dialectics of a region / Schoffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / Repr / Academic Press / 1977
·
The Nyau societies : our present understanding / Schoffeleers,
Jan Mathijs / Repr / s.n. / 1976
·
The interaction of the M'Bona cult and christianity, 1859-1963 /
Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / Heinemann / 1975
·
Crisis, criticism and critiques : an interpretative model of
territorial mideiumship among the Chewa / Schoffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / Repr / s.n. / 1974
·
The prophets of Nsanje : a history of spirit mediumship in a
southern Malawian district : paper read at the conference on the
history of eastern African religions, Nairobi, 1974 /
Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / s.n. / 1974
·
From socialization to personal enterprise : a history of the Nomi
labor societies in the Nsanje district of Malawi, c. 1891 to 1972
Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / Michigan State University, The
African Studies Center / 1973
·
An organizational model of the Mwari shrines : paper read at the
annual conference of the association for sociology in Southern
Africa, Lesotho, 1973 Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr /
Association for Sociology in Southern Africa / 1973
·
Towards the identification of a proto-chewa culture : a
preliminary contribution / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr /
s.n. / 1973
·
Seven centuries of Malawi religion/ Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs /
s.n. / 1973
·
Livingstone and the Mag 'Anja chiefs / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs
/ Repr / Longman / 1973
·
The Chisumphi and Mbona cults in Malawi : a comparative history :
paper read at the conference on the history of Central African
religions, Lusaka, 1972 Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / s.n. /
1972
·
Masks of Malawi / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / University of
California, African Studies Center / 1972
·
Myth and legends of creation : 7 / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs /
Repr / s.n. / 1972
·
The resistance of the Nyau societies to the Roman Catholic
missions in colonial Malawi Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr /
Heinemann / 1972
·
The history and political role of the M'Bona cult among the
Man'Anja Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / Heinemann / 1972
·
The religious significance of bush fires in Malawi Schoffeleers,
Jan Mathijs / Université Lovanium / 1971
·
The meaning and use of the name 'Malawi' in oral traditions and
precolonial documents / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr /
Longman / 1971
·
Social functional aspects of spirit possession in the Lower Shire
Valley of Malawi : paper read at the University Social Sciences
Council conference, Kampala, 1969 / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs /
Repr / University Social Sciences / 1969
·
Symbolic and social aspects of spirit worship among the Mang
'Anga / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Michaelmas Term / 1968
·
Evil spirits (afiti) rites of exorcism in the lower Shire Valley
of Malawi / Schoffeleers, Jan Mathijs / Repr / Monfort Press /
1967
·
M'Bona the guardian-spirit of the Mang'Anja S/ choffeleers, Jan
Mathijs / St. Catherine's College / 1966
·
Evil spirits (Afiti) and rites of exorcism in the Lower Shire
Valley of Malawi / Schoffeleers, J.M. / s.n. / [ca.1965]
·
More: http://opc-ascl.oclc.org/REL?PPN=069380740